Stroop Effect

The Stroop examination is a widely used mensurate of selective attention that requires interference resolution, response inhibition, and response option.

From: Increasing Intelligence , 2017

Stroop Effect in Language

C.M. MacLeod , in Encyclopedia of Linguistic communication & Linguistics (2d Edition), 2006

The Stroop effect, demonstrated by slowed response time – interference – in naming the colour of a to-be-ignored word, can serve as an indirect measure out of the processing of the word. The color-word chore and the film-word variant (name the picture show, ignore the word) take been widely used to provide a covert look at linguistic communication processing. Results demonstrate interference at a number of linguistic levels, from audio to meaning, and highlight the utility of this tool for understanding linguistic processing, and the roles played past learning, attention, and retentiveness in that processing. Theories of Stroop interference increasingly derive from linguistic theory.

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Keyboarding

David A. Rosenbaum , in Human Motor Command (Second Edition), 2010

Response-Response Compatibility

In the Stroop effect, the response that happens to be called up by the discussion that is shown to the participant interferes with the response that is called up by the word's ink. In other tasks, such interference between possible responses is also suggested. Changes to choice RTs due to relations between or among possible responses, whether chosen for implicitly or explicitly, are known equally response-response (R-R) compatibility effects.

I of the beginning reports of the R-R compatibility effect came from an experiment (Kornblum, 1965) in which subjects performed in two different choice RT conditions. In one, they chose betwixt a button press with the index finger of the right hand and a button press with the middle finger of the right hand. In the other, they again chose between a push printing with the index finger of the right hand and a button press with the middle finger of the left mitt. The signals were the aforementioned in the 2 conditions, yet the choice RT for the mutual right index finger was shorter when the alternative response was the left eye finger than when the culling response was the right middle finger. Thus, the choice RT for the same response to the same betoken was affected by the identity of the other possible response.

What accounts for this result? Kornblum (1965) suggested that there is more competition or inhibition between fingers of the aforementioned hand than betwixt fingers of different hands. The index finger and middle finger of the aforementioned hand are linked mechanically, whereas the index finger of i mitt and the middle finger of the other hand are more mechanically independent. Y'all can demonstrate this difference for yourself past trying to hold your correct index finger rigid while oscillating either your right middle finger or your left heart finger. It is nearly impossible to keep your index finger still while wiggling the eye finger of the same paw, but it is easy to keep your index finger still while oscillating the middle finger of the other manus. The greater independence between the fingers of the two hands makes it easier to prepare to respond with one of those fingers.

Further support for this business relationship of R-R compatibility came from an experiment in which participants were encouraged to get set up to respond with a right index finger response and on most trials were asked to respond with that finger. Notwithstanding, on other trials they were called upon to respond with some other possible finger—either the right center finger or the left centre finger (Rosenbaum & Kornblum, 1982). The time to switch to the less prepared response was longer when it was made with the correct heart finger than when information technology was fabricated with the left center finger, consistent with the hypothesis that while the right index finger response was prepared, participants plant it easier to maintain a secondary state of readiness for the other-paw response.

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Stroop, Cocaine Dependence, and Intrinsic Connectivity

M.R. Mitchell , 1000.N. Potenza , in The Neuroscience of Cocaine, 2017

34.2 Stroop

The Stroop, and Stroop Event, were named afterward John Ridley Stroop after publishing "Studies of Interferences in Serial Verbal Reactions" ( Stroop, 1935), during which he investigated interference between naming ink colors in color-words or the words themselves. The manuscript consisted of 3 experiments, using three dissimilar stimuli. The first asked participants to proper noun color-words written in blackness ink (stimulus 1) and to name colour-words independently of the colour of the ink (stimulus 2). In the second experiment, participants were asked to say the color of the color-words independently of the written discussion (stimulus 2) and besides to name the color of squares (stimulus three). The third experiment tested participants at different stages of practice across the three different stimuli to account for the effects of association. Stroop noted that it took participants longer to complete the colour naming in the 2d experiment than information technology did to read the proper noun of the color-discussion in experiment i. Naming the ink colour equally opposed to the color-discussion in which the colour and discussion are mismatched (incongruent) has greater mental interference because of the prepotency of reading: essentially the mind can "automatically" determine the semantic pregnant of a give-and-take, simply must intentionally inhibit such a response in society to proper name the color of the word instead (Stroop, 1935).

The Stroop has since been modified to include three principal types of stimuli: neutral, congruent, and incongruent. Neutral stimuli include those that might consist of color-words in black ink or colored shapes. Coinciding stimuli are color-words that are written in the aforementioned ink color every bit the word (i.e., "blue" written in blue ink), whereas incongruent stimuli are those that are written in an ink color that does not match the color-give-and-take (i.e., "blue" written in red ink). Since the invention of the Stroop chore, several variations take adult to interrogate different aspects of interference or saliencies within the chore. For case, color-discussion tasks are generally classified as "cold," meaning that they are not generally associated with emotional states, every bit compared with "hot" tasks that apply emotionally or motivationally charged words (Goel & Dolan, 2003; Moreno-López et al., 2012; Schaefer et al., 2003; Unsworth, Heitz, & Engle, 2005). The emotional Stroop uses nonneutral words, which tin can elicit emotions such as "grief" or "violence," or in the case of cocaine dependence, cocaine-associated words, which further elicit the need to suppress distracting information (Frings, Englert, Wentura, & Bermeitinger, 2010). It is oft noted that those who are depressed have longer to say the color of a negative word than a neutral word; similarly, cocaine-dependent subjects take longer to say the color of a cocaine-associated give-and-take than a neutral word (Hester, Dixon, & Garavan, 2006; Liu et al., 2011; Pike, Stoops, Fillmore, & Rush, 2013). One other variant of the Stroop task is a numerical Stroop. This task generates conflict betwixt the numerical value and the physical size of the number presented. A digit can be presented in large or small text, irrespective of its numerical value, and trials in which smaller numerical values are presented in larger text sizes generate interference, resulting in delayed responding (Henik & Tzelgov, 1982). One benefit of this Stroop variant is that it does not involve language processing.

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Assessment methods

Golnaz Baghdadi , ... Mojdeh Rajabi , in Neurocognitive Mechanisms of Attention, 2021

7.3.1.iv Stroop tests

Stroop tests were designed based on the Stroop effect ( Stroop, 1935). According to this consequence, when at that place is a mismatch between a colour word and the ink color, it is difficult to ignore the colour word and name the ink color. For case, if the color word "RED" is written by green ink, it is difficult to ignore the pregnant of the word (i.e., red) and name the green ink. Several versions of Stroop tests take been designed based on the Stroop effect. The original version of this exam is called the Stroop colour and word examination. It includes iii blocks. In the first block of the test, a list of color words printed in black ink is presented to the individuals. They are requested to read the color words aloud as quickly as possible. In the second block, a series of randomized colour squares are displayed. The individuals are asked to name the color of each square aloud as quickly as possible. In the third block, a series of color words printed by a randomized mismatch color is displayed. The individuals are asked to name the color of each square aloud every bit speedily as possible. Fig. vii.7 shows a schematic of these three blocks of the exam. Blocks ane and ii are control conditions, and the third block is considered as the experiment condition. According to the Stroop effect, the experiment condition is performed slower and with more mistake than the control conditions.

Figure 7.7. A schematic of the original vision of the stroop color-give-and-take test.

The other famous version of the Stroop exam is the emotional Stroop test. In this test, the individuals are requested to name the colour of some negative (e.g., crying, hate, or fear) and neutral (e.g., Wikipedia, car wash, or heaven) words. This test is used to evaluate the emotional biases of the participant based on the Stroop effect. Every bit mentioned in half-dozen.viii, individuals with low usually have a negative attentional bias. That is, they have exceptional attention to negative and threatening words. Therefore, in the emotional Stroop test, depressed people accept more than time to proper noun the color of negative words in comparison with the neutral ones (Epp et al., 2012).

The results of the Stroop tests signal the performance of the selective attention system, including the conflict monitoring system, executive functions, the inhibitory control organisation, and response choice mechanisms. Suppose that the individual is asked to proper name the colour of the words. When the meaning of the word is incongruent with the color of the ink, a conflict occurs. The dominant tendency is to name the meaning of the word. Therefore, the conflict is between the goals of the exam (i.east., naming the give-and-take color) and the automated trend to name the meaning of the word. The private should suppress and inhibit the habitual response and select an advisable reply. People with frontal lobe damage (Demakis, 2004) and ones with problems in selective attending (Pham et al., 2003) have poor performance in Stroop tasks.

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Emotion and Cognition

Bhoomika R. Kar , ... Narayanan Srinivasan , in Progress in Brain Enquiry, 2019

3.3.ane Effect of congruency

The Imaging results revealed set of brain regions for the contrast reflecting the Stroop upshot (Incongruent  >   Congruent) for both Happy and Angry affect. A factorial design 2 (emotion: Happy and angry)   ×   2 (congruence: coinciding and incongruent) model equally in behavioral assay was too constructed using the 2d level model. The imaging analysis revealed activations in dorsal anterior cingulate for the significant interaction betwixt emotion congruence (P  <   0.01) surviving FWE corrected P  <   0.05, k  >   10 voxels (see Fig. iv). This is consistent with the significant emotion   ×   congruence interaction observed in behavioral analysis (error rates). This second level model also allowed us to plot the beta values to show brain activity contour across experimental conditions.

Fig. 4

Fig. iv. Activation in dorsal inductive cingulate cortex for the Stroop effect (Incongruent   &gt;   Coinciding).

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The Elicitation and Assessment of Emotional Responding

Sarah J. Bujarski , ... Joshua Cisler , in Sleep and Affect, 2015

Word Stimuli: The "Emotional" Stroop Task

The emotional Stroop task is often used to assess the influence of attention on information processing. The emotional Stroop effect refers to findings that individuals are slower to name the color of ink a discussion is printed in when that word is negative compared to neutral (east.yard., Algom, Chajut, & Lev, 2004). This suggests that negative words are more likely to attract attention and, therefore, filibuster the processing of other stimulus data (i.e., the color of the ink). In improver to attention effects, other researchers have posited that disengaging from emotionally relevant stimuli is more difficult, which likewise serves to delay processing (e.chiliad., Estes & Adelman, 2008). Thus, both the valence (negative vs. neutral) and the arousal level of the printed word are probable to impact how quickly and accurately the color of the ink tin be processed.

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Emotion and Cognition

Shashikanta Tarai , Narayanan Srinivasan , in Progress in Encephalon Enquiry, 2019

three.2.two N400 assay results

Compatible with the findings in previous literature (Schirmer and Kotz, 2003 ), our study revealed a Stroop outcome in N400 (455–855) component ( Fig. 8). A four-way ANOVA with emotional pregnant, congruency, hemisphere and electrode sites with hateful N400 amplitudes in the frontal region showed a meaning main result of congruency, F(1, 17)   =   seven.764, P  =   0.013, η p two  =   0.314. The amplitude was larger (more than negative) for incongruent compared to coinciding stimuli. The primary outcome of hemisphere was pregnant, F(1, 17)   =   16.772, P  =   0.001, η p two  =   0.496 with larger N400 amplitude in the correct hemisphere (Fig. 8). The main outcome of electrode sites was significant, F(i, 17)   =   21.071, P  <   0.001, η p two  =   0.553 but at that place was no significant interaction between electrode sites and emotional meaning too as electrode sites and congruency (P  >   0.05).

Fig. 8

Fig. 8. Mean amplitudes for the N400 component in the frontal, temporal, temporoparietal, central and centroparietal regions as a function of congruency.

Assay with primal and centroparietal electrodes showed a significant principal effect of congruency, F(1, 17)   =   10.52, P  =   0.005, η p ii  =   0.382. Mean amplitudes were larger for incongruent trials compared to coinciding trials indicating a Stroop effect (Fig. 8). There was a meaning laterality effect, F(1, 17)   =   29.465, P  <   0.001, η p 2  =   0.634 with larger amplitudes in the right hemisphere. In that location was a significant main effect of electrode sites, F(1, 17)   =   4.103, P  =   0.002, η p 2  =   0.194. The other effects were not significant (P  >   0.05).

Analysis with temporal and temporoparietal electrodes showed a significant principal effect of emotional word meaning, F(1, 17)   =   4.808, P  =   0.043, η p ii  =   0.220 with larger amplitudes for angry words compared to happy words. There was a significant main upshot of congruency, F(ane, 17)   =   4.843, P  =   0.042, η p 2  =   0.222 with larger amplitudes for incongruent trials compared to congruent trials (Fig. 8). The effect of laterality was significant, F(ane, 17)   =   28.963, P  <   0.001, η p 2  =   0.630 with college amplitude in the right hemisphere. The master result of electrode sites was meaning, F(1, 17)   =   4.704, P  =   0.001, η p 2  =   0.217. The interaction effects were not significant (P  >   0.05). In summary, there was a congruency effect across all the electrode sites considered in the analysis spanning frontal, central and temporal regions. In addition, in that location was a laterality effect with larger amplitudes in the right hemisphere for electrodes in frontal, key, and temporal regions.

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Cerebral Interferences and Their Development in the Context of Numerical Tasks

Liat Goldfarb , in Heterogeneity of Function in Numerical Cognition, 2018

Interferences in Numerical Cognition

The perception of numbers and quantities and the process of solving simple or complex arithmetic issues frequently involve dissimilar aspects of interference. The numerical Stroop issue is an case of an interfering job in the numerical domain. Hither, instead of give-and-take and color dimensions, the two dimensions that "pit" against each other are number and size or number and quantity. In the number-size congruency job, two digits that are different in size and numerical value are presented on the screen. In some of the trials, the numerical value and the physical size are coinciding (eastward.1000., 3 8) and in other trials they are incongruent (3 8). The common finding is that RT for deciding which digit is numerically or physically larger is faster for congruently sized numerical pairs than for incongruent pairs (e.k., Besner & Coltheart, 1979; Henik & Tzelgov, 1982; Tzelgov, Meyer, & Henik, 1992). Although both the numerical and the physical task demonstrate a state of affairs in which interference from the irrelevant dimension is observed, the source of the interference is different in each task. While in the numerical task the attended dimension is the digit and the interfering dimension is the size, in the physical task the interference is caused by the numerical dimension that needs to be ignored and the size-congruency effect suggests that automatic numerical processing has occurred.

In another version of the numerical Stroop task, the counting Stroop, a digit or a number discussion is presented on the screen several times. In some of the trials the number is congruent with the number of times the digit or the word appears (e.g., "three" appears 3 times) and in other trials they are incongruent (e.g., "three" appears twice). Again the mutual finding is that RT for perceiving the quantity is faster for congruent number trials than for incongruent trials (east.k., Bush, Whalen, Shin, & Rauch, 2006).

Another interference that relates to quantity perception appears during the process of perceiving subset quantities. The perception of number of items in a subset reflects a situation in which one has to perceive the number of subset items inside the total. The perception of subset numbers is necessary in everyday life, when objects commonly appear as part of an overall group of items. We rarely need to just enumerate the number of "things" (items whose identity is irrelevant), rather we enumerate predefined subset items from among a total number of items. When a kid at a party decides to arroyo a table that contains a substantial amount of cookies, the child needs to enumerate the number of cookies among other items on the table such every bit spoons or flowers. We (Goldfarb & Levy, 2013; Goldfarb & Treisman, 2013) previously suggested that perceiving the number of items in a subset is qualitatively different than perceiving the total number of items. We suggested that the perception of number of subset occurs via an attentional path and it is an effortful procedure fifty-fifty for small subset numbers within the subitizing range. At an early perception stage, features in our surroundings such as size, colour, and shape are perceived in their special feature maps rapidly, simultaneously, and without utilizing attentional resources (e.thousand., Treisman & Gelade, 1980; Treisman & Schmidt, 1982). However, to individuate identical items, so these tin can be counted, a representation must be created in which each individuated location is bound to the specific identity. This is in contrast to perception of the total number of items, which only requires knowledge about the location of items (and not their other features).

In line with this proffer, we (Goldfarb; Levy, 2013) found that the perception of subset quantity involves an interference past the number of distractors (the items that do not need to be enumerated). In two experiments, participants were asked to count the number of targets (Xs) while ignoring distractors (Bone). The distractors were either few or many. If counting a subset depends on prior binding betwixt each possible location and its shape, then it was assumed that the RT for counting subset target items volition be faster in a display with few distractors than in one with many distractors. On the other hand the number of distractors should not interfere with the perception of the targets' number if the number of a sure target tin be directly pulled out of the scenery or of a relevant feature map such as a shape map (e.g., Huang, Treisman, & Pashler, 2007; Wolfe, 1994). Overall, the results indicated that irrelevant items do interfere and RT for counting subset target items becomes slower as the amount of distractors increases.

Other examples of interference in numerical tasks can be plant in arithmetics tasks. Arithmetic is a branch of mathematics that deals with numbers and their addition, subtraction, multiplication, and sectionalisation. Arithmetic processing can occur automatically, without a specific educational activity to perform the task (LeFevre, Bisanz, & Mrkonjic, 1988; LeFevre & Kulak, 1994, Sklar et al., 2012). When performing arithmetics tasks, unlike types of unrelated information also have the potential to interfere. This can be resulted in an incorrect retrieve or in a slowdown of the processes of retrieval. For example, when we try to solve the arithmetic problem 3   ×   6   =   xviii, numbers that are adjacent to the correct solution (due east.g., 17) tin can interfere. Adjacent answers in the same times table tin can also interfere in a multiplication task. For example, in the case of the arithmetic problem 3   ×   6   =   xviii, the number 21, which is the consequence of the arithmetic problem 3   ×   vii, can cause an interference. In addition, we can also observe interferences by the results of arithmetic problems that involve the relevant digits but too other irrelevant operations. Meaning that in the case of 3   ×   half dozen   =   xviii, the number 9 tin can interfere with the correct answer because information technology is the result of the irrelevant trouble 3   +   6 (e.k., Campbell, 1987; Stazyk, Ashcraft, & Hamann, 1982).

In complex arithmetic problems with more than two addends, we can also detect interferences from the intermediate sum. Complex arithmetic that involves 3 or more addends has specific cognitive demands such as the need to compute, hold, and manipulate the intermediate sum. Information technology has been suggested that in these kinds of calculations, the intermediate sum might be temporarily stored in the working memory (De Stefano & LeFevre, 2004). In Abramovich and Goldfarb (2015) we examined interferences that involve intermediate sums. In this experiment participants were presented with 3 addends (e.yard., 4, 2, 9). So they were asked to perform two tasks: (a) summate the sum of these addends (east.1000., identify that the sum is 15) and (b) place whether a certain digit was one of the addends in the problem displayed on the screen (e.g., identify that merely the digits iv, 2, and 9 appeared on the screen as addends of the problem). RT and fault rate for detecting that certain digits were not displayed (job b) were measured in two conditions of interest. In the get-go condition the absent digit was the intermediate sum (due east.g., participants were supposed to observe that 6, which is the intermediate sum of 4 and 2, was not an addend in the improver problem). In the second status, the absent digit was a neutral digit (e.grand., participants were supposed to detect that vii was not an addend in the add-on problem). The results revealed an interference upshot in which information technology was difficult to identify that the digit representing the intermediate sum was not really i of the operands, relative to a neutral digit. In a second experiment we further examined whether the intermediate sum is activated automatically when a chore does not require calculation. In this experiment participants were presented with a prime number of an addition problem followed past a target number. The task was to make up one's mind whether a target number is odd or fifty-fifty, while ignoring the addition problem in the prime. In the 3 addend improver problem, the target could be either coinciding with the intermediate sum of the problem (e.g., prime: 8   +   iii   +   iv and target: eleven) or incongruent (e.g., prime: eight   +   3   +   iv and target: 6). The results suggested that the intermediate sum of the addition trouble in the prime was activated automatically and facilitated the identification of the target.

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When Exercise the Effects of Distractors Provide a Mensurate of Distractibility?

Alejandro Lleras , ... J. Toby Mordkoff , in Psychology of Learning and Motivation, 2013

2.3.2 The Flanker Upshot is Not a Measure of Distraction

The Flanker Effect is an example of distractor interference, and it is not the but ane. The Simon outcome (Simon & Rudell, 1967 ) and the Stroop outcome ( Jaensch, 1929; Stroop, 1935) are also well-known examples of distractor interference. What these effects accept in common is that one can consistently observe show that some attribute of the distractor stimulus (or the distractor aspect) influences behavior. But is distractor interference a measure of distractibility? Hardly so. If nosotros follow the logic presented above in the context of visual search, the Flanker Effect is no different. Distractors in this task are selected by the experimenter with the promise that, if they are processed, they can have a measureable effect on functioning. To accomplish a measureable upshot on performance, the disquisitional distractors in the flankers task are, in the vast majority of studies, exact replicas of one of the possible target stimuli. The rationale is simple: given that participants have a response associated with every target, we can hijack those stimulus–response associations to mensurate distractor processing. So, all we need to exercise is utilise targets (or target-like stimuli) equally the distractors. Participants will know that they are not the target on any given trial because targets and distractors are always presented at dissimilar locations. Even so, if participants process those distractors, they will activate those stimulus–response associations and compete (with the information coming from the actual target) to make up one's mind the response on the trial. In sum, congruent and incongruent distractors in a flankers job are past design stimuli that fit the participants' job set. For example, if the participants' task is to place whether a central alphabetic character is an X or an O, the critical distractors in nearly designs of a flankers task would exist either Xs or Os. Thus, if one assumes that participants have a job set that stresses the importance of Xs and Os, information technology would be difficult to come up upwardly with more than task-relevant stimuli than congruent and incongruent distractors (i.east. Xs and Os). Therefore, given that the critical distractors in this task are really very much task-relevant, they cannot tell usa anything about distractibility.

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Simulating Psychological Phenomena and Disorders

Warren W. Tryon , in Cognitive Neuroscience and Psychotherapy, 2014

Stroop Consequence

J. R. Stroop (1935) reported that participants took longer to say the colour of ink that the names of colors were written in than it did to read the color names. I begin with the Stroop event because information technology is one of the nigh well-replicated phenomena that psychological science has to offer. This effect has been adjusted to assess clinically relevant unconscious processing. See Chapter 9 for boosted details.

Cohen et al. (1990) provided mechanism information regarding the unconscious processing that mediates the Stroop effect. The gist of this enquiry is that the normal experience of reading has strengthened the synapses that mediate discussion reading more than the synapses that mediate color naming. Hence, it takes longer to proper name the colors of ink than to read the colour names.

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